From: Chemical assessment of mycotoxin contaminants and veterinary residues in Costa Rican animal feed
Average ± standard deviation | Maximum mycotoxin concentration ± Ux/x, μg kg−1 | Minimum mycotoxin concentration ± Ux/x, μg kg− 1 | Number of samples above recommended guideline/legislative threshold | Prevalence, %[Samples over limit of detection, (n)] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Feed ingredients (n = number of events over limit of detection) | ||||
 Rice meal (n = 2) | ||||
  Zearalenone (2000 μg kg− 1) | ||||
  109.51 ± 103.13 | 212.64 ± 25.98 | 6.38 ± 0.78 | 0 | 100.00 [2] |
 Forage (n = 9) | ||||
  Aflatoxin G2 (50 μg kg− 1 total aflatoxins)c | ||||
  1.54 ± 0.24 | 1.78 ± 0.22 | 1.30 ± 0.16 | 0 | 22.22 [2] |
  Citrinin | ||||
  18.28 ± 11.58 | 29.86 ± 3.65 | 6.71 ± 0.82 | 0 | 22.22 [2] |
  α-zearalenone | ||||
  13.76 ± 1.17 | 14.93 ± 1.82 | 12.60 ± 1.54 | 0 | 22.22 [2] |
  Aflatoxin B2 (50 μg kg−1 total aflatoxins)c | ||||
  3.01 ± 1.57 | 4.58 ± 0.56 | 0.87 ± 0.11 | 0 | 33.33 [3] |
 Wheat Middlings (n = 11) | ||||
  3-acetyldeoxynivalenol | ||||
  1630.85 ± 1605.71 | 3566.81 ± 435.83 | 2465.29 ± 301.24 | 0 | 18.18 [2] |
  Aflatoxin B1 (50 μg kg− 1 total aflatoxins)c | ||||
  0.055 ± 0.038 | 0.093 ± 0.011 | 0.016 ± 0.002 | 0 | 18.18 [2] |
  Enniatin B | ||||
  3016.05 ± 550.76 | 3566.81 ± 435.83 | 2465.29 ± 301.24 | 0 | 18.18 [2] |
  Enniatin B1 | ||||
  23.91 ± 19.48 | 43.39 ± 5.30 | 4.43 ± 0.54 | 0 | 18.18 [2] |
  Fumonisin B1 (60,000 μg kg−1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  707.74 ± 282.62 | 1043.86 ± 127.55 | 352.39 ± 43.06 | 0 | 27.27 [3] |
 Soybean meal (n = 14) | ||||
  Diacetoxyscirpenol | ||||
  324.61 ± 22.83 | 347.43 ± 42.45 | 301.78 ± 36.88 | 0 | 14.29 [2] |
  HT-2 toxin (500 μg kg−1 sum T-2/HT-2) c | ||||
  97.03 ± 76.52 | 173.55 ± 21.21 | 20.50 ± 2.51 | 0 | 14.29 [2] |
  Ochratoxin B | ||||
  108.60 ± 71.90 | 180.50 ± 22.06 | 36.69 ± 4.48 | 0 | 14.29 [2] |
  T-2 toxin | ||||
  24.37 ± 19.75 | 44.12 ± 5.39 | 4.61 ± 0.56 | 0 | 14.29 [2] |
  Deoxynivalenol (8000 μg kg−1)c | ||||
  88.49 ± 127.88 | 364.11 ± 44.49 | 1.56 ± 0.19 | 0 | 42.86 [6] |
 Corn meal (n = 40) | ||||
  Aflatoxin G1 (50 μg kg− 1 total aflatoxins)c | ||||
  0.40 ± 0.13 | 0.53 ± 0.07 | 0.27 ± 0.03 | 0 | 5.00 [2] |
  Deoxynivalenol (8000 μg kg− 1)c | ||||
  18.51 ± 2.84 | 21.35 ± 2.61 | 15.67 ± 1.91 | 0 | 5.00 [2] |
  Nivalenol | ||||
  95.23 ± 70.59 | 165.82 ± 20.26 | 24.64 ± 3.01 | 0 | 5.00 [2] |
  Ochratoxin B | ||||
  6.43 ± 0.15 | 6.57 ± 0.80 | 6.28 ± 0.77 | 0 | 5.00 [2] |
  α-zearalenone | ||||
  38.43 ± 0.15 | 76.61 ± 9.36 | 0.26 ± 0.03 | 0 | 5.00 [2] |
  15-acetyldeoxynivalenol | ||||
  103.53 ± 129.77 | 286.92 ± 35.06 | 6.10 ± 0.74 | 0 | 7.50 [3] |
  Aflatoxin B1 (50 μg kg− 1 total aflatoxins)c | ||||
  0.93 ± 0.14 | 1.13 ± 0.14 | 0.82 ± 0.10 | 0 | 7.50 [3] |
  Zearalenone (2000 μg kg− 1) | ||||
  917.53 ± 969.07 | 2287.31 ± 279.49 | 194.79 ± 23.80 |  | 7.50 [3] |
  3-acetyldeoxynivalenol | ||||
  685.86 ± 388.15 | 965.07 ± 117.92 | 16.20 ± 1.98 | 0 | 10.00 [4] |
  Fumonisin B1 (60,000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  1050.06 ± 906.51 | 2926.98 ± 357.65 | 226.56 ± 27.68 | 0 | 20.00 [8] |
  Fumonisin B2 | ||||
  578.55 ± 669.59 | 2308.56 ± 282.56 | 106.59 ± 13.02 | 0 | 25.00 [10] |
Compound feed | ||||
 Shrimp feed (n = 2) | ||||
  Sterigmatocystin | ||||
  908.81 ± 337.73 | 1246.54 ± 152.32 | 571.09 ± 69.78 | 0 | 100.00 [2] |
  Ingredientsb†: corn meal (max 15%), soybean meal (max 75%), DDGS, palm kernel meal (max 30%), wheat middlings (max 20%), rice meal and bran (max 15%), soybean hulls. | ||||
 Sheep feed (n = 6) | ||||
  Fumonisin B1 (5000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  282.62 ± 118.66 | 347.28 ± 42.44 | 109.95 ± 13.44 | 0 | 33.33 [2] |
  Fumonisin B2 (5000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  120.72 ± 40.23 | 160.95 ± 19.67 | 80.49 ± 9.84 | 0 | 33.33 [2] |
  Zearalenone (500 μg kg− 1) c | ||||
  299.24 ± 50.63 | 349.87 ± 42.75 | 248.61 ± 30.38 | 0 | 33.33 [2] |
  Ingredientsb†: corn meal (max 45%), Soybean meal (max 13%), DDGS (max 20%), palm kernel meal, wheat middlings (max 25%), rice bran, soybean hulls (max 20%). | ||||
 Pet food (dog dry food, n = 8) | ||||
  Aflatoxin G1 | ||||
  3.10 ± 0.77 | 3.86 ± 0.47 | 2.33 ± 0.28 | 0 | 25.00 [2] |
  Fumonisin B1 (5000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  2007.52 ± 1808.45 | 4554.36 ± 556.51 | 531.75 ± 64.98 | 0 | 37.50 [3] |
  Fumonisin B2 (5000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  2163.60 ± 1106.76 | 1056.84 ± 137.85 | 3270.36 ± 426.57 | 0 | 37.50 [3] |
  Ingredientsb †: corn meal (max 50%), DDGS (max 25%), palm kernel meal, wheat middlings (max 20%), rice meal and bran (max 20%). | ||||
 Poultry feed (n = 16) | ||||
  Aflatoxin G1 (20 μg kg− 1 total aflatoxins) c | ||||
  0.78 ± 0.85 | 1.97 ± 0.24 | 0.05 ± 0.01 | 0 | 18.75 [3] |
  Deoxynivalenol (5000 μg kg− 1)c | ||||
  28.34 ± 13.90 | 42.24 ± 5.16 | 14.44 ± 1.76 | 0 | 12.50 [3] |
  Fumonisin B2 (20,000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  1897.00 ± 2898.09 | 6911.99 ± 844.59 | 72.19 ± 8.82 | 0 | 25.00 [4] |
  Fumonisin B1 (20,000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  471.74 ± 277.98 | 953.09 ± 116.46 | 88.97 ± 10.87 | 0 | 37.50 [6] |
  Ingredientsb†: corn meal (no restriction), soybean meal (no restriction), DDGS (max 10–15%), palm kernel meal (3–3.5%), wheat middlings (max 3–3.5%), rice bran and polishings (max 3–3.5%), soybean hulls (max 3–3.5%). | ||||
 Calf feed (n = 24) | ||||
  Deoxynivalenol (2000 μg kg− 1)c | ||||
  31.48 ± 31.30 | 62.79 ± 7.67 | 0.20 ± 0.02 | 0 | 8.33 [2] |
  Enniatin B1 | ||||
  36.28 ± 36.13 | 72.41 ± 8.85 | 0.15 ± 0.02 | 0 | 8.33 [2] |
  Enniatin B | ||||
  586.63 ± 154.23 | 711.74 ± 86.97 | 369.35 ± 45.13 | 0 | 12.50 [3] |
  HT-2 toxin (500 μg kg− 1 sum T-2/HT-2) c | ||||
  88.15 ± 69.86 | 182.35 ± 22.28 | 15.28 ± 1.87 | 0 | 12.50 [3] |
  Fumonisin B1 (20,000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  446.45 ± 117.84 | 676.88 ± 82.71 | 293.22 ± 35.83 | 0 | 29.17 [7] |
  Fumonisin B2 (20,000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  615.73 ± 886.97 | 2773.27 ± 338.87 | 102.46 ± 12.52 | 0 | 29.17 [7] |
  Ingredientsb†: corn meal (no restriction), soybean meal (no restriction), DDGS (12–15%), palm kernel meal (max 10–15%), wheat middlings (max 10–20%), rice bran and polishings (max 10–20%), soybean hulls (max 10%), citrus pulp (10%). | ||||
 Poultry layer feed (n = 28) | ||||
  3-acetyldeoxynivalenol | ||||
  166.14 ± 33.98 | 200.13 ± 24.45 | 132.16 ± 16.15 | 0 | 7.14 [2] |
  Aflatoxin G1 (20 μg kg− 1 total aflatoxins) c | ||||
  0.47 ± 0.35 | 0.82 ± 0.10 | 0.12 ± 0.01 | 0 | 7.14 [2] |
  Zearalenone (250 μg kg− 1) c | ||||
  415.74 ± 140.17 | 555.91 ± 67.93 | 275.57 ± 33.67 | 2 | 7.14 [2] |
  Deoxynivalenol (5000 μg kg− 1) | ||||
  42.98 ± 7.38 | 50.36 ± 6.15 | 35.60 ± 4.35 | 0 | 7.14 [2] |
  HT-2 toxin (500 μg kg− 1 sum T-2/HT-2) c | ||||
  8.45 ± 6.11 | 16.81 ± 2.05 | 0.0017 ± 0.002 | 0 | 17.86 [5] |
  Fumonisin B1 (20,000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  446.65 ± 244.52 | 956.92 ± 116.93 | 173.01 ± 21.14 | 0 | 25.00 [7] |
  Fumonisin B2 (20,000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  657.81 ± 1079.21 | 3507.81 ± 428.62 | 124.39 ± 15.20 | 0 | 28.57 [8] |
  Ingredientsb†: corn meal (no restriction), soybean meal (no restriction), DDGS (max 10–15%), palm kernel meal (3–3.5%), wheat middlings (max 3–3.5%), rice bran and polishings (max 3–3.5%), soybean hulls (max 3–3.5%). | ||||
 Beef cattle feed (n = 51) | ||||
  Aflatoxin B2 (50 μg kg− 1 total aflatoxins)c | ||||
  11.43 ± 10.96 | 22.39 ± 2.74 | 0.46 ± 0.06 | 1 | 3.92 [2] |
  Aflatoxin G1 | ||||
  2.08 ± 1.79 | 1.94 ± 1.86 | 3.79 ± 0.46 | 0 | 3.92 [2] |
  Zearalenone (500 μg kg− 1) c | ||||
  281.79 ± 134.83 | 416.62 ± 50.91 | 146.95 ± 17.96 | 0 | 3.92 [2] |
  15-acetyldeoxynivalenol | ||||
  23.40 ± 17.96 | 41.36 ± 5.05 | 5.44 ± 0.66 | 0 | 3.92 [2] |
  Deoxynivalenol (5000 μg kg− 1)c | ||||
  26.21 ± 6.69 | 32.90 ± 4.02 | 19.52 ± 2.39 | 0 | 3.92 [2] |
  Enniatin B | ||||
  638.80 ± 279.21 | 1115.50 ± 136.30 | 239.59 ± 29.28 | 0 | 9.80 [5] |
  Enniatin B1 | ||||
  25.09 ± 6.86 | 34.56 ± 4.22 | 18.50 ± 2.26 | 0 | 5.88 [3] |
  α-zearalenone | ||||
  20.37 ± 8.41 | 32.24 ± 3.94 | 13.83 ± 1.69 | 0 | 5.88 [3] |
  Ochratoxin A (250 μg kg− 1) c | ||||
  176.26 ± 171.92 | 525.17 ± 64.17 | 12.38 ± 1.51 | 2 | 15.69 [8] |
  Fumonisin B1 (50,000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  554.52 ± 374.96 | 1635.38 ± 199.83 | 227.42 ± 27.79 | 0 | 21.57 [11] |
  Fumonisin B2 (50,000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  570.07 ± 816.10 | 3013.12 ± 368.18 | 38.27 ± 4.68 | 0 | 21.57 [11] |
  Ingredientsb†: corn meal (no restriction), soybean meal (no restriction), DDGS (12–15%), palm kernel meal (max 10–15%), wheat middlings (max 10–20%), rice bran and polishings (max 10–20%), soybean hulls (max 10%), citrus pulp (10%). | ||||
 Swine feed (lactating and gestating sows and pig grower, n = 54) | ||||
  Aflatoxin G1 (20 μg kg− 1 total aflatoxins) c | ||||
  2.60 ± 0.40 | 3.00 ± 0.37 | 2.20 ± 0.27 | 0 | 3.70 [2] |
  Aflatoxin G2 | ||||
  11.54 ± 11.41 | 22.95 ± 2.80 | 0.13 ± 0.02 | 1 | 3.70 [2] |
  Deoxynivalenol (900 μg kg− 1) | ||||
  83.85 ± 12.58 | 96.43 ± 11.78 | 71.27 ± 8.71 | 0 | 3.70 [2] |
  Enniatin B | ||||
  1456.62 ± 1139.02 | 2595.64 ± 317.17 | 317.59 ± 38.81 | 0 | 3.70 [2] |
  Ochratoxin A (50 μg kg− 1) c | ||||
  90.03 ± 86.31 | 176.34 ± 21.55 | 3.72 ± 0.46 | 1 | 3.70 [2] |
  T-2 toxin (500 μg kg− 1 sum T-2/HT-2) c | ||||
  26.27 ± 13.20 | 39.47 ± 4.82 | 13.06 ± 1.60 | 0 | 3.70 [2] |
  α-zearalenone | ||||
  183.64 ± 89.11 | 272.74 ± 33.33 | 94.53 ± 11.55 | 0 | 3.70 [2] |
  Zearalenone (100 μg kg− 1) c | ||||
  3413.07 ± 3105.16 | 6518.23 ± 796.47 | 307.91 ± 37.62 | 2 | 3.70 [2] |
  15-acetyldeoxynivalenol | ||||
  21.11 ± 21.95 | 51.81 ± 6.33 | 1.74 ± 0.21 | 0 | 5.56 [3] |
  3-acetyldeoxynivalenol | ||||
  97.43 ± 108.61 | 279.19 ± 34.11 | 6.84 ± 0.84 | 0 | 5.56 [3] |
  HT-2 toxin (500 μg kg− 1 sum T-2/HT-2) c | ||||
  24.02 ± 9.15 | 36.28 ± 4.43 | 14.31 ± 1.75 | 0 | 5.56 [3] |
  Fumonisin B1 (5000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  701.61 ± 718.91 | 2715.10 ± 331.76 | 233.69 ± 28.55 | 0 | 25.93 [14] |
  Fumonisin B2 (5000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  1395.61 ± 2149.99 | 8019.99 ± 979.98 | 103.26 ± 12.62 | 1 | 25.93 [14] |
  Ingredientsb†: corn meal (no restriction), soybean meal (no restriction), DDGS (max 10%), palm kernel meal (max 10%), wheat middlings (max 20–25%), rice bran and polishing (max 20–25%), soybean hulls (no restriction). | ||||
 Dairy cattle feed (n = 186) | ||||
  Aflatoxin B1 (50 μg kg− 1 total aflatoxins)c | ||||
  0.15 ± 0.04 | 0.19 ± 0.02 | 0.11 ± 0.01 | 0 | 1.07 [2] |
  Neosolaniol | ||||
  57.14 ± 7.61 | 64.75 ± 7.91 | 49.53 ± 6.05 | 0 | 1.07 [2] |
  Ochratoxin B | ||||
  16.41 ± 4.04 | 20.45 ± 2.50 | 12.37 ± 1.51 | 0 | 1.07 [2] |
  Sterigmatocystin | ||||
  387.83 ± 57.81 | 445.63 ± 54.45 | 330.02 ± 40.33 | 0 | 1.07 [2] |
  β-zearalenone | ||||
  499.65 ± 271.62 | 771.27 ± 94.24 | 228.03 ± 27.86 | 0 | 1.07 [2] |
  15-acetyldeoxynivalenol | ||||
  29.94 ± 8.99 | 38.38 ± 4.69 | 17.49 ± 2.14 | 0 | 1.62 [3] |
  3-acetyldeoxynivalenol | ||||
  159.61 ± 145.15 | 352.24 ± 43.04 | 1.88 ± 0.23 | 0 | 1.62 [3] |
  Aflatoxin G2 | ||||
  1.43 ± 1.32 | 3.49 ± 0.43 | 0.24 ± 0.03 | 0 | 2.15 [4] |
  Citrinin | ||||
  21.86 ± 19.03 | 52.48 ± 6.41 | 3.51 ± 0.43 | 0 | 2.15 [4] |
  Enniatin B1 | ||||
  58.67 ± 29.56 | 104.91 ± 12.82 | 27.14 ± 3.32 | 0 | 2.69 [5] |
  Ochratoxin A (250 μg kg− 1) c | ||||
  50.99 ± 56.73 | 158.70 ± 19.39 | 3.67 ± 0.45 | 0 | 2.69 [5] |
  Deoxynivalenol | ||||
  25.87 ± 26.44 | 82.60 ± 10.09 | 0.75 ± 0.09 | 0 | 3.22 [6] |
  Aflatoxin G1 | ||||
  2.95 ± 1.31 | 5.75 ± 0.70 | 1.60 ± 0.19 | 0 | 3.76 [7] |
  T-2 toxin (500 μg kg− 1 sum T-2/HT-2) c | ||||
  47.19 ± 44.97 | 137.81 ± 16.84 | 1.67 ± 0.20 | 0 | 4.30 [8] |
  HT-2 toxin | ||||
  60.14 ± 88.86 | 303.22 ± 37.05 | 5.02 ± 0.61 | 0 | 5.38 [10] |
  α-zearalenone | ||||
  38.05 ± 24.95 | 96.21 ± 11.76 | 8.40 ± 1.03 | 0 | 5.38 [10] |
  Enniatin B | ||||
  477.01 ± 259.96 | 914.05 ± 111.69 | 147.78 ± 18.06 | 0 | 6.99 [13] |
  Zearalenone (250 μg kg− 1) c | ||||
  294.51 ± 286.20 | 1107.81 ± 135.37 | 54.54 ± 6.66 | 3 | 8.06 [15] |
  Fumonisin B1 (50,000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  460.62 ± 508.11 | 3133.88 ± 382.93 | 124.77 ± 15.25 | 0 | 19.89 [37] |
  Fumonisin B2 (50,000 μg kg− 1 FB1 + FB2) c | ||||
  685.45 ± 1321.61 | 8088.95 ± 988.40 | 52.76 ± 6.45 | 0 | 24.73 [46] |
  Ingredientsb†: corn meal (no restriction), soybean meal (no restriction), DDGS (12–15%), palm kernel meal (max 10–15%), wheat middlings (max 10–20%), rice bran and polishings (max 10–20%), soybean hulls (max 10%), citrus pulp (10%). |